Free Peer Reviewed Articles 2015-2019 Attachment and Temperament
Korean J Pediatr. 2012 Dec; 55(12): 449–454.
Bear on of attachment, temperament and parenting on human development
Yoo Rha Hong
Department of Pediatrics, Kosin University College of Medicine, Busan, Korea.
Jae Sunday Park
Department of Pediatrics, Kosin University College of Medicine, Busan, Korea.
Received 2012 Aug eight; Accustomed 2012 Oct 25.
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to present the bones concepts of zipper theory and temperament traits and to discuss the integration of these concepts into parenting practices. Attachment is a basic human need for a close and intimate human relationship betwixt infants and their caregivers. Responsive and contingent parenting produces securely attached children who prove more curiosity, cocky-reliance, and independence. Securely attached children also tend to become more than resilient and competent adults. In contrast, those who do not feel a secure attachment with their caregivers may have difficulty getting along with others and be unable to develop a sense of confidence or trust in others. Children who are irksome to adjust or are shy or irritable are likely to feel conflict with their parents and are likely to receive less parental acceptance or encouragement, which tin brand the children feel inadequate or unworthy. Even so, the influence of children's temperament or other attributes may exist mitigated if parents adjust their caregiving behaviors to ameliorate fit the needs of the particular child. Reflecting on these arguments and our babyhood relationships with our own parents can help us develop the skills needed to provide effective guidance and nurturance.
Keywords: Attachment, Parenting, Temperament, Development, Kid
Introduction
The birth of a child initiates a life-long procedure of mutual adaptation betwixt the kid and his or her caregivers and the broader social environment. Relationships and patterns of interactions formed during the early stages of life serve as a prototype for many interactions afterward in life and might accept life-long effects1). Young children exercise non have the language power to express to their caregivers what they need, so children often communicate through their behavior. Parents are ofttimes unaware of their child's feelings or the mental representations of their emotions. Thus, attentive attunement to all aspects of a child is a very demanding task. Parents want their infants to grow up healthy and to develop behaviors that allow them to take charge of their own lives. Parents want to know how to provide the best parenting possible, especially when they do not want a mere repetition of their own individual family histories. A review of previous research findings volition provide some guidelines to answer this question.
Bowlby'due south key ideas almost babe-caregiver zipper
Co-ordinate to John Bowlby's theory1) of attachment development, a child is "fastened" to someone when he or she is "strongly disposed to seek proximity to and contact with a specific effigy and to practise so in sure situations, notably when he is frightened, tired or ill." He noted the shut attachment human relationship betwixt responsive caregivers (typically the mother, simply non always) and infants from about half dozen months to ii years of historic period.
The emotionally charged connection between caregiver and child ensures that the two volition remain in concrete proximity, especially when the kid is between 8 and xviii months of historic period. When the baby becomes more mobile, he volition rely on the caregiver less frequently for proximity maintenance, although he does not abandon it altogether. Once the child experiences the security of this physical closeness, he will develop the courage to explore away from the caregiver. This fascinating paradox, the conversion from pursuing closeness to moving abroad from dependence, is the core of attachment theory. In other words, when a child is securely fastened to his female parent and the feeling of closeness is restored, the seeking of proximity and closeness recedes and the child turns to other interests, comfortably using the caregiver as a base from which to explore.
Ainsworth's enquiry model for testing attachment quality
Mary Ainsworth, a developmental psychologist who studied with Bowlby, adult a controlled laboratory situation called the "strange situation," and so named because it is a novel experience for the child2). Ainsworth had mother and 12-calendar month-former infant pairs play in a room with toys and observed the babe's reactions to several situations, including separation, for 20 minutes. First, would the infants use the mother as a secure base to explore the room and the new toys when the female parent sits in the playroom, or would they cling to their mother and refuse to explore? 2d, what would happen if the mother was told to go out the room briefly and a stranger entered? Would the child exist distressed but and then comforted, or would they remain distressed for the entire menstruum the mother was gone? Tertiary, what happened when the mother returned? Would the child be relieved, would they be indifferent, or would they exist distressed?
From the children's responses to these situations, Ainsworth found that most infants had secure attachments. They played and explored comfortably when their mothers were present, became visibly upset when they left, and calmed speedily upon their return. Some infants, still, sought little contact with their mothers and were not distressed when they left. Ainsworth labeled these patterns avoidant attachment. Finally, some infants showed anxiety fifty-fifty when their mothers were near. Although they protested excessively when their mothers left, they were not peculiarly comforted when they returned, a design Ainsworth labeled clashing (anxious-clashing, resistant) attachment. These three patterns are described according to the caregiver's fashion (Fig. 1). A quaternary category, termed disorganized zipper, was afterwards identified past Main and Solomon and subsequently added to Ainsworth's original tripartite classification3) (Table 1).
Iii patterns of attachment corresponding to Ainsworth's caregiving mode.
Table 1
Types of Attachment in Infants in Foreign Situation and Respective Adult Categories
What makes the departure in zipper quality or style?
Although Bowlby acknowledged that feeding may facilitate mother-infant proximity, attachment is not merely a function of feeding4). Harlow and Zimmermann'southward monkey study5) and Bowlby's observation1) in orphanages advise that infants demand emotional support and contact in add-on to food and shelter. Ainsworth et al.2) as well closely observed mothers and children in their homes and paid conscientious attending to each mother's style of responding to her infant'southward behaviors, such as feeding, crying, cuddling, eye contact, and grinning, before the infants' behavior was assessed in the "strange state of affairs." Responsive mothers were mothers who provided physical care, emotional communication, and affection to their children in articulate relation to their signals of need. The mother's reciprocal or contingent responses (reinforcement depending on the beliefs of the child) by eye contact, cuddling, touching, or praise may reinforce the child'south communicative attempts, such as blathering or laughing. Responsive mothers also gave their children enough "space" when they were playing, itch, or otherwise exploring their environment independently. The critical aspect of responsive caregiving is that the mothers are aware of their children's needs and wants and respond to that data. The responsive caregiver "resonates" with the child's messages even though they are difficult for others to decipher at first.
Traditionally, most Korean mothers proficient what pediatrician William Sears calls "zipper parenting"6); they usually engaged in long-term breastfeeding, carried their infants in fabric slings on their backs while doing housework (babywearing), and cosleeping (an infant and female parent sleeping side past side in the same room). This shut proximity of the babe to her mother could provide an optimal environment for amend interactions and attachment.
Infant zipper styles and adult personality
Longitudinal data using adult attachment interviews suggest that attachment insecurity does indeed serve as a adventure factor for psychopathology7-xi). Insecurely fastened children are probable to develop fewer social skills and have lower levels of communication skills. An insecurely attached child may frequently get anxious, even in benign circumstances. Chronic vigilance and anxiety volition so increase the probability of a future anxiety disorder7). Anxiety is a very powerful stimulus of emotional distress that puts a person in a high arousal country (a country of hyper-responsiveness to sensory stimulation or excitability). Either too little arousal (lack of sensory input or boredom) or too much prolonged arousal is detrimental. Consequently, optimal performance cannot be attained because of an inability to maintain an appropriate level of arousal.
Indeed, the Adult Zipper Interview draws its validity from the high correspondence between the attachment classification of parents and their infants' classifications in the Foreign Situation8). Thus, "secure," "avoidant," "ambivalent (anxious-ambivalent, resistant)," and "disorganized" infants tend to have primary caregivers who are "autonomous," "dismissing," "preoccupied," and "unresolved," respectively, with respect to attachment12). Categories of attachment behaviors of infants in the foreign situation and respective zipper categories amidst adults are proposed in several studies9,12) (Table 1). Jang13) observed verbal agreement between infant category and corresponding adult category (maternal working model) in xi out of the xx dyads (55%) she studied, and she argued that attachment styles can transmit over generations. Another study in South Korea by Jung14) with 239 dyads of preschool children and their mothers confirmed that children'southward attachment patterns were related to their mothers' attachment patterns to their own mothers. Parental insecure attachment styles also have a crucial impact on the development of psychiatric manifestations in school-aged children. Yoo et al.15) reported that parents who were judged to be preoccupied had children with more internalized symptoms than those who were judged to be secure, whereas dismissing/avoidant parents had children with college scores on attention bug, and fearful/avoidant parents had children with more externalized symptoms.
Temperament traits of children
The possibility that attachment security is partially influenced biologically in relation with temperament needs to be examined. Temperament can be described as a neurobiological element of the private that differs from person to person in emotions, sociability, and self-control. Temperament is epigenetic, originating in genes but besides affected by child-rearing practices. Although certain dopamine receptor D4 polymorphisms (a 48 base-pair repeat in exon three of DRD4) are associated with low neuronal reactivity, increased exploratory behavior, and novelty seeking16), such associations require replication studies before they can be viewed equally causative. The concept of temperament can help parents understand and accept the characteristics of their children without feeling responsible for having caused them. Identifying children's temperaments may also allow for aligning in parenting styles.
The New York Longitudinal Study was started in 1956 by Thomas and Chess17). This classic study of temperament traits in children followed 133 individuals from 84 families, predominantly educated families in New York, from 3 months of age to machismo, and observed how well they fit in at school, with their friends, and at home. Results of the study revealed 9 temperamental dimensions17,18).
Dimensions and broad types of temperament traits
In addition to the nine dimensions, Thomas and Chess17) likewise classified children's temperaments into 3 types. Approximately twoscore% of the children in the total sample were deemed to be "like shooting fish in a barrel children" who are generally cheerful and adjust quickly to new foods and new people, 10% were "hard children" who tend to be hands frustrated and contribute to negative social interactions, and 15% were "fearful children" who have relatively low activeness levels and tend to withdraw on their first exposure to new stimuli (Table 2). The remaining 35% did not seem to exist easily classified into ane of these groups. There have been numerous other investigations to characterize the structure of temperament. Amid them, the iii dimensions of extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful self-control forged by Rothbart and Bates19), and two basic dimensions of uninhibited and inhibited, with intermediate phenotype by Kagan and Fox20) are now near widely accepted (Table 2).
Table 2
Types and Dimensions of Temperament of Children Studied past Researchers
Parenting and parenting styles
Parents are children'southward outset and foremost nurturers, teachers, guides, counselors, and protectors. Parents wonder what their children will be like when they abound upward and want them to become the most capable adults they tin can be. Even so, parents differ on how they raise and interact with their children. Growing up with keen parents is a great approving in life, and the way a kid is raised influences the kind of person he or she volition go. As attachment styles seem to transfer over generations, and so practise parenting styles. From this context, it is a existent success in life and realization of homo potential if an individual who grew upwards in a disadvantaged or ill-treated family unit breaks the barbarous wheel and practices positive parenting.
Children who misbehave often do and then not out of malice, but out of ignorance, colorlessness, or frustration, and simply need to be taught, listened to, or redirected. A child who is ignored by his parents often misbehaves as a way to seek attention. When parents respond immediately to attention-seeking misbehaviors, such equally temper tantrums or screaming, it inadvertently reinforces that behavior. Instead, rewarding the child's appropriate behaviors with praise and hugs tin can exist more than effective. It is important to take hold of them existence good and to avoid expressing negative judgments or using wrong labels that demean the child. What we believe about others or ourselves can become true due to a self-fulfilling prophecy because nosotros tend to act in accordance with what we believe. Children develop their opinions about themselves by observing the way pregnant others reply to and communicate with them. A parent's feedback or opinions almost them are social mirrors and are used to form self-images and self-judgments.
Baumrind21) defined 3 categories of master parenting styles. The categories, which were after extended to include indifferent or negligent parents, were as follows: authoritative (demanding and responsive to kid with respectful attitude), disciplinarian (demanding only non responsive, "do-equally-I-say" style), permissive or indulgent (more responsive than demanding), and indifferent or neglecting (neither enervating nor responsive). Authoritative parenting is, by far, the almost effective parenting styles because it promotes a kid's ability to withstand potentially negative influences, including life stress and exposure to antisocial peers. Authoritarian parents are likely to produce anxious youth with low self-esteem, lack of spontaneity, and lack of intellectual curiosity22) (Fig. 2).
Children's characteristics produced from unlike parenting styles.
Capability of parental responses to temperament (goodness-of-fit)
Parenting is a reciprocal process in which the parent influences the child'south development, and in return, the child influences the parent. The influence of temperament and other attributes of children may be mitigated or negligible as long as caregivers modify their behavior to fit the needs of the children23). Nonetheless, when a mother's capacity to do so is limited by her ain personality or stressful conditions, then infants with a difficult temperament or problem behaviors are at run a risk for developing attachment insecurity. Studies accept shown that almost securely fastened infants develop distinctly dissimilar attachment bonds with each parent and their various caregivers24). This suggests that parents can modulate their children'south temperament past influencing their children'southward environment. For example, Chess et al.18) have recognized that behaviors that atomic number 82 to a child beingness classified as "easy" or "difficult" tin can vary depending on parental and cultural values, attitudes, and practices. Hence, they emphasize that interaction should be considered in terms of "goodness-of-fit," which is the compatibility of a person's temperament with their family, school, and community. Any temperament trait may not be inherently problematic; rather, information technology is the interaction that determines the "acceptability" of that trait.
"Cogitating parenting" is a theory of parenting derived from Fonagy et al.'s concept25) of "reflective functioning," which refers to the man chapters to understand the behavior of the self and others in low-cal of underlying mental states and intentions. Mothers in a high-stress or overcrowded environs, or who are deprived of employment security, would exist more likely to have securely attached infants if they answer to the children's motivations rather than their deportment.
Conclusions
From several core ideas of early life experiences, we can discern valuable insights into parenting practices. Sensitive and responsive intendance from parents is vital for the optimal growth and development of each child. Children who are rarely spoken to, who are left to weep themselves out, who have little opportunity to explore their environment, or who experience frequent anger or boredom cannot fully develop their potential and stable personalities, despite their normal genetic endowment.
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Articles from Korean Journal of Pediatrics are provided hither courtesy of Korean Pediatric Order
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3534157/
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